The energy transition(s) in Catalonia, Corsica, and Sardinia: Between sustainability, sufficiency, and sovereignty

This article examines the intersection of ecological challenges, energy transi tion, and sub-state nationalism in three Mediterranean regions: Sardinia, Corsica, and Catalonia. Building on research on sub-state nationalism, energy justice, and environmental politics, it draws on 55 in-depth interviews with political actors, social movement representatives, and environmental activists, complemented by document analysis. The analysis identifies three dominant frames shaping energy transition debates—referred to as the “three Ss”: sover eignty in Sardinia, sustainability in Corsica, and sufficiency in Catalonia. In Sardinia, energy sovereignty is articulated as resistance to perceived neocolo nial dynamics associated with large-scale renewable energy projects. In Corsica, environmental NGOs emphasize sustainable development, reflecting a more institutionalized approach based on legal actions to reconciling ecological protection and economic development, contrasting with a past marked by political violence, including over environmental issues. In Catalonia, a strong tradition of environmental and social mobilization underpins sufficiency-based perspectives, often linked to degrowth and broader critiques of capitalist development. The article argues that these frames are shaped not only by structural political-economic conditions but also by patterns of interaction and alliance among political parties, social movements, NGOs, and civil society actors. More broadly, the findings suggest that Mediterranean regions—often depicted as peripheral and environmentally vulnerable—may function as laboratories for alternative, justice-oriented approaches to the eco-climatic crisis, challenging dominant green growth paradigms